Out of the four Gospels, the Gospel according to John is normally seen as the most theologically dense and rich with meaning.[1] One such scene that exemplifies this is the Passion narrative in John’s Gospel. John expands upon the themes of identity and agency which has punctuated his Gospel up until that point. This paper will be split into three focuses. Firstly, it is necessary to have a background of the events that take place prior to the final judgment scene in the Passion which will be explored for literary context. Secondly, it will dig into the final conversation between Jesus and Pilate, before the verdict, and look at the theme of dramatic irony as it plays out in John 19:8-16a. Finally, the implications in modern worship and liturgical understanding will be explored through the lens of personal formation.

            The two chapters of John directly dealing with the Passion and Crucifixion of Jesus are continuations of ideas which John has set from the beginning of his Gospel. The theme which pervades John 18 and 19 is the agency of Christ. Christ is not a bystander in the events around him, but directly and intentionally influences them for the plan of God. John makes this point clear in the Garden of Gethsemane: “Then Jesus, knowing all that was to befall him, came forward and said to them, ‘Whom do you seek?”[2] This is the response of a man who is determined to complete a task set before him. Throughout the Gospel, Christ makes references to the divine plan.[3] Also while in the Garden of Gethsemane, Christ even orders Peter to sheathe his sword, saying “Shall I not drink the cup that the Father gave me?”[4] These areas of the Passion narrative give an impression of Jesus who is something more than just a simple messenger and a compliant bystander to the plan of God.[5] Scholars even look at the last words of Christ on the cross as the knowing completion of God’s plan: “Now as Jesus was about to die, the whole task that God has given him is about to be fulfilled.”[6]

John uses symbols in much the same way modern authors or filmmakers do, to illuminate some sort of transcendent reality or unseen truth. This literary device is used to tackle one of the major questions John raises: who is Jesus of Nazareth? Identity is integral to understanding Jesus as John wants his readers to do so. Jesus’s identity as one of the divine persons, God made manifest, is seen particularly in the “I am” statements, used to punctuate the revelation of Christ as God. When Jesus uses the phrase “I am” throughout John’s Gospel, it held special importance to the Jews. The Greek translates from the Hebrew to egō (ἐγώ) eimí (εἰμί) which is the translation of the sacred name for God first expressed in the book of Exodus.[7] This will have a great religious significance which will be explored later and leads to the angering of the Jewish high priests and elders. John’s literary genre is much the same as the Synoptic Gospels, a Greco-Roman biography. Like the other Gospels, John’s work exhibits much of the similar characteristics these include: a focus on the words and actions of Christ (around 55 percent of the verbs are used in John’s Gospel this way), an extended end-of-life narrative (around 20 percent of the Gospel) and a method of characterization that revolves around the deeds and words of Christ.[8]

Symbolism reaches its climax within the trial that takes place in the praetorium in John’s Gospel. Each movement of the Jews, Pilate, Christ, and the actions of those around them reveal or engage the identity question present within the whole of John. Christ’s kingly identity, for example, is symbolized in the scourging at the pillar, where the crowning with thorns and clothing with purple is the unintentional recognition of this status.[9] Religious context plays a large role in the use of irony in the middle section of the Johannine passion narrative. The Jewish leaders attempt to remain undefiled, for “they themselves did not enter the praetorium” which was a Gentile home and would prevent them from consuming the Passover meal.[10] They may remain on the outside clean, but internally (as was John’s theme of religious hypocrisy) are completely defiled.[11] Paul Duke comments on the irony of the desire to eat the Passover Lamb, that in seeking to eat the physical lamb they hand over the true Lamb of God, Jesus, to facilitate the sacrifice.[12]

The structure of the trial scene at the praetorium has been split by some scholars into seven separate scenes.[13]Each of these transitions is marked by a movement from Pilate, who takes the place of the reader, moving between the irate anger of the Pharisees and crowds, to the attempts to understand just who Jesus is and why the Jewish people have sought Pilate’s intervention. These quick scene changes are described by Schnackenburg as a use of literary symbolism, as Pilate moves between an outdoor area and indoor moments.[14] These repeated moments are meant to emphasize the struggle contained within Pilate (whom the reader empathizes with) over the demands of the Jewish people. The passage also contains a long-form sustained narrative irony, as the motives of the Sanhedrin are explored within the early moments of the delivery of Christ to Pilate. The reasoning is given by the Jewish leaders: “If he were not a criminal, we would not have handed him over to you.”[15] Handed over, which when moved back to the Greek comes to paradidōmi (παραδίδωμι) means betrayal or delivering up. Raymond Brown connects the verb to a subtle use by John to denounce the Jewish officials: “The verb has been used eight times previously in the Gospel to identify Judas; now the onus of handing over Jesus has passed on to the Jewish authorities.”[16] The men who are meant to be the paragons of religious virtue are now the ones who are putting virtue itself to death.

The irony present within the moments of the trial serves a dual purpose, to condemn the Jewish officials who attempted to remain holy and in the revelation of Christ’s identity. This identity is continually explored in the questions asked by Pilate and in the way the Roman soldiers attempt to humiliate him. Even Pilate mocks the Jewish leaders in their own inability to condemn Christ through their own means, thereby resorting to the Roman court, which was the only real method of the death sentence available to Palestine at the time for political prisoners.[17] The plan of God is fulfilled in the kind of death Jesus would die, as “their carefully plotted plan to put Jesus on a Roman cross is only in fulfillment of what Jesus himself has already chosen”.[18]

Pilate argues with the elders, returns to the inner praetorium, asks another question of Jesus, goes out and the cycle continues. When the soldiers garb Jesus in the crown of thorns and the purple cloak, proclaiming “Hail, King of the Jews!,” they unknowingly speak the truth; Jesus is the righteous king.

            After exploring some of the characteristics contained within the Gospel of John and looking at some of the structural elements of the scenes with Pilate, the final step is to go deeper and look into the final interaction with Pilate, Jesus, and the Jewish crowd in John 19:8-16a. The first line has confounded scholars as Pilate’s fear seems to come out of nowhere, “When Pilate heard these words, he was the more afraid.”[19] The question then results: was Pilate afraid earlier throughout the trial and conversations with Christ? The modifier more would have the reader assume so, as it implies some level of fear before the statement made by the Jews in verse 7. While no real answer can be found that is agreed upon by every scholar, Pilate appears to be reacting to the declaration that this is a religious crime the Jewish leaders have brought against Jesus.[20] This then sets in motion an understanding that nothing Pilate can do will shake the fervor of the people.

Pilate then reenters the praetorium and questions Jesus seeking answers. This movement, sixth in the structural sequence outlined above, allows for another moment for Christ and Pilate to converse, this time about the true nature of Jesus. The question “Where are you from?” implies an origin far from the geographical region of Nazareth.[21] This connects to an earlier conversation where Christ says he is not of this world.[22] Christ, however, remains silent. The silence given by Jesus is important, as it offers clues to the identity of Christ. If the Jewish leaders throughout the Gospel, with the revelation of Isaiah and other prophets, could not understand or accept the Incarnate word, how could a simple Roman governor?[23]

            Pilate then attempts to intimidate Jesus into breaking his silence and answering the question put forth by the Roman prelate. Pilate warns Jesus of the power he holds over life and death: “Do you not know that I have power to release you, and power to crucify you?”[24] The language used here, mainly the personal pronoun I, demonstrates the personal importance Pilate places upon himself. Pilate’s threat can be split into two sections: the power to sustain life, and the power to cause death. The ability of Pilate to sustain life is ironic in two ways; firstly Pilate will fail to protect Jesus from the anger of the crowds, conceding to the call for Christ’s crucifixion.[25] The second piece of irony comes from another identity of Jesus, that being life itself.[26] Pilate’s threat falls flat in that sense, for how is someone who only sustains life supposed to remove life from life itself.

The second threat of Pilate, to cause death, also falls flat in the face of Jesus’s next statement on where his authority is granted. The statement of Jesus can be split into two sections, “You would have no power over me unless it had been given you from above,” and the second part, ”therefore he who delivered me to you has the greater sin.”[27]Christ uses the conditional unless to reveal the hand of the Father in this plan playing back into the Johannine theme of the agency of Christ. Pilate merely becomes a vehicle for the divine plan. John in this passage condemns the Jews (the “he” in this case appears to be used in the plural)[28] for condemning God to death and conspiring against him.

From there the scene shifts once again to the final section before the Crucifixion. Pilate once again attempts to convince the people to announce Jesus’s release. This incites the elders to make their final play by appealing to the political sphere. By insinuating the potential political backlash (“If you release this man, you are not Caesar’s friend”), Pilate is forced to choose between his loyalty to the Roman Empire, which is a real pressure for him,  and the life of one Jewish man, who claimed to be a king.[29] The political pressure is too much for him, and Pilate makes no real strong effort to release Jesus.

Then Pilate moves Christ out of the praetorium, moving him to the next location, Gabbatha. The language used here is important as the three major translations of the Catholic Church in America all differ. The Jerusalem Bible states that Pilate “had Jesus brought out, and seated himself on the chair of judgment”; the NABRE states that “brought Jesus out and seated him on the judge’s bench”; while the RSV remains ambiguous “brought Jesus out and sat down on the judgment seat.”[30] The identity of who sat upon the bench is important as these types of seats were normally placed at the gates of cities and used for passing judgment in legal cases.[31] If Pilate were to be the one seated, then irony takes hold that Jesus is the true judge, carrying out the will of God. If Jesus is the one placed upon the seat, then the symbolism is simply more explicit. The location of this seat is stated as Gabbatha, a judgment hall next to the praetorium, a perfect place for the climax of Pilate’s trial of Christ.[32]

After this scene, John gives another mention of the events surrounding the trial: “it was the day of Preparation of the Passover; it was about the sixth hour.”[33] This preparation day is important, as it is a symbol for John of the sacrifice of the true Passover lamb. The sixth hour was normally the time when the lambs were prepared for the Temple sacrifice on Passover itself.[34] Jesus more vividly becomes the new Passover lamb, who would be sacrificed for the redemption of all mankind. This ties into the overall identities of Christ as Jesus is identified as the Lamb of God by John. Pilate once more goes out to the people and announces, “Behold, your king!” as Christ remains in his purple robe and crown of thorns.[35] This act, intended to be a mocking gesture by the Roman prelate, is in fact, the truth. Jesus truly is the King of the Jews, no matter how much the Jewish authorities attempt to deny it. The Jews, however, have a markedly different response to this news.

“Away with him, away with him, crucify him!”[36] The cry of the Jewish leaders is a total rejection of the legitimate authority of Christ. This response prompts Pilate to ask one final question of the Jewish people, “Shall I crucify your King?”[37] The mockery within the question is not readily apparent but is an important parallel. Just as Pilate was forced to choose between the Roman Empire and a random Jewish rabbi, the Jews are asked a question of faith: “Will they forfeit the Messiah, and so cease to be the messianic people of God?”[38] This choice should not come lightly, as the Book of Leviticus prescribed capital punishment for those who blaspheme or turn their back upon God.[39] Yet the Jews commit the greatest sacrilege, emphatically declaring, “We have no king but Caesar.”[40] They have forsaken their role as the leaders of Judaism for a simple bout of anger. The rejection is filled with irony, as one of the hymns sung during the Passover celebration even remarks the absolute devotion of the Jewish people towards God.[41] Pilate then hands over Jesus for his crucifixion: “Then he handed him over to them to be crucified.”[42] While them literally more likely refers to the Roman soldiers, it is the symbolic meaning that is interesting. The word paradidōmi comes up once again as Pilate betrays his duty as judge in condemning Christ to the Jewish high priests. They have committed the great sin by condemning Jesus, King and Messiah.[43] This is the climax of John’s trial narrative, with the final condemnation, Christ is sent off to be crucified.

John continues his theological look at the identities of Christ in this section of the Passion narrative. The first major section of the passage explores the question of who Jesus is in relation to Pilate’s fear over the statement that Christ appeared to make himself the Son of God. That statement is part of the theme of identity as Pilate attempts to ascertain where Christ has his origin. Jesus’s response hints at his identity as the Word, the Logos, referenced in John’s first chapter.[44] The constant references to kingship also point at Christ’s divine kingship, as the choice always comes between the Roman Emperor and Christ, two sets of kings, one material the other spiritual. The chief priests and elders make the final choice to reject Christ in favor of a Roman ruler, condemning Christ to death by crucifixion.

Looking at the applications outside of the literal sense first leads us to the liturgy, to see how the passage fits within the lectionary. While John is always read throughout the Church calendar, the Passion according to John is read every Good Friday. This is due to the nature of choice in John’s Gospel. As the congregation normally reads the part of the crowd and Jewish leaders during the passion, they are pushed into reflecting on the rejection of the Pharisees of Jesus. This rejection not only applies to those directly within the story, as listeners reflect upon how they reject Christ in their own lives choosing the rule of sin and vice over the true king, Jesus Christ. The faithful have to be helped to realize the temptations of sin and choose Christ instead, to reject the pride of the Pharisees.

The presence of John’s Passion narrative plays a large role in examining some of the roles and facets of who Jesus Christ really is. By understanding the literary context and themes that make up John’s Gospel as a whole, it becomes easier to focus in and pick out the pieces that John places in the Passion narrative relating to kingship and the divine plan of God as Christ is revealed to be more than simply a rabbi. Dramatic irony is something that is a part of the writing style of the Apostle, as he shows the absurdity of the rejection of Christ and the hypocrisy of the officials during the trial. John’s Gospel also has great significance for the life of the faithful, as much of our personal reflection for faith in Jesus can come from the Johannine Passion sequence. John’s Passion not only reveals core pieces of the identity of Jesus Christ but asks its reader to ponder them alongside the text.

[1] For the duration of this paper, I will follow in the tradition of the Roman Catholic Church by attributing the Gospel to the apostle John.

[2] Jn 18:4 (RSV).

[3] Cf. Jn 12:27, 13:3, 18:11 (RSV).

[4] Jn 18:11 (RSV).

[5] Troels Engberg-Pedersen, John and Philosophy: A New Reading of the Fourth Gospel (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 290.

[6] Ibid.

[7] "G1473 - egō - Strong's Greek Lexicon (RSV)," Blue Letter Bible, accessed April 18, 2019; "G1510 - eimi - Strong's Greek Lexicon (RSV)," Blue Letter Bible, accessed April 18, 2019; Research on the vocabulary of John 18 and 19 was achieved via the Blue Letter Bible, Oxford Text Archive.

[8] Mark W. G. Stibbe, John's Gospel, ed. John Court (London: Routledge, 1994), 58-59.

[9] J. N. Sanders and B. A. Matin, A Commentary on the Gospel According to St. John (London: A. and C. Black, 1968), 400.

[10] Jn 18:28 (RSV).

[11] Charles R. Erdman, The Gospel of John: An Exposition (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1936), 163.

[12] Paul D. Duke, Irony in the Fourth Gospel (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1985), 128.

[13] Rudolf Schnackenburg, The Gospel According to St. John (New York: Crossroad, 1990), 220.

[14] Ibid., 242.

[15] Jn 18:30 (NABRE); Cf. Jn 18:30 (Jerusalem Bible and RSV).

[16] “G3860 - paradidōmi - Strong's Greek Lexicon (RSV)," Blue Letter Bible, accessed April 22, 2019;  Raymond Edward Brown, The Gospel According to John XIII-XXI, vol. 29, 44 vols., Anchor Bible (Garden City: Doubleday, 1970), 848.

[17] Solomon Zeitlin, "The Crucifixion of Jesus Re-Examined," The Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series, 31, no. 4 (1941), 342-344.

[18] Duke, Irony, 128.

[19] Jn 18:9 (RSV).

[20] See Brown’s explanation of the numerous theories in The Gospel of John,  The Anchor Bible, 878.

[21] Jn 18:10 (RSV)

[22] Cf. John 18:37 (RSV).

[23] Cf. Jn 2:13-25; 8:17-20, 53-59; Brown, The Gospel of John, The Anchor Bible, 878.

[24] Jn 19:10 (RSV).

[25] Duke, Irony, 133.

[26] Cf. Jn 14:6 (RSV).

[27] See Jn 19:11 for both statements of Christ (RSV).

[28] He could also refer to Caiaphas, who is traditionally recognized as the Jewish representative. See Brown, The Gospel of John, The Anchor Bible, 879.

[29] Jn 19.12 (RSV); Cf. Brian C. McGing, ”Pontius Pilate and the Sources," The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 53, no. 3 (1991): 437-38;  Erdman, John: An Exposition, 168.

[30] Jn 19:13 (Jerusalem Bible); Jn 19:13 (NABRE); Jn 19:13 (RSV).

[31] Cf. M. G. Easton, Easton's Bible Dictionary (Thomas Nelson, 1897), 469.

[32]Cf. Easton, Dictionary, 457; Cf. Schnackenburg, The Gospel According to St. John, 264.

[33] Jn 19:14 (RSV).

[34] Cf. Schnackenburg, The Gospel According to St. John, 265.

[35] Jn 19:14 (NABRE)

[36] Jn 19:15 (NABRE)

[37] Ibid.

[38] Duke, Irony, 135.

[39] Cf. Lev 24:15-16 (RSV).

[40] Jn. 19:15 (RSV).

[41] Duke, Irony, 135.

[42] Jn 19:16 (RSV).

[43] Duke, Irony, 136.

[44] Cf. John 1.